Odissi

body

Odissi originated in the eastern state of Odisha, as evidenced by ancient temple sculptures, inscriptions, and religious texts. Characterised by its fluidity, grace, and sculptural poses, the dance is deeply intertwined with the devotional traditions of Lord Jagannath. Initially performed as a sacred offering by Maharis (temple dancers) within temple precincts, the dance form faced severe decline during the colonial period, only to be systematically revived and reconstructed in the mid-20th century by a collective of scholars, gurus, and cultural practitioners. Odissi has evolved over centuries—from temple rituals to court performances to modern classical stage art. Odissi’s origins can be traced back over 2,000 years. Its earliest references appear in ancient Sanskrit texts, such as the Natyashastra by Bharata (2nd century BCE), in which eastern Indian dance forms are referred to as ‘Odra’.

The dance is further mentioned in the Abhinaya Darpana and in the inscriptions and reliefs at the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar, dated to the 2nd century BCE, which depict dancers in what are now characteristic Odissi poses. Archaeological evidence, including temple reliefs, Jain sculptures, and early medieval literature, confirms the practice of dance as a sacred art performed in temples as part of ritual worship. 6th-century CE Buddhist sites like Ratnagiri and Lalitgiri are dotted with sculptures of dancing figures and gods and goddesses in dance poses. Hindu temples between the 7th century CE and 10th century CE have sculptures which depict dancers as well as Lord Shiva in various dancing poses. Some such temples in and around Bhubaneswar include Bharateswar Temple (7th century CE), Raja-Rani, Brahmeswar and Mukteswar Temples (10th century CE) and the Lingaraj Temple (11th century CE). The Jagannath Temple (11th century CE) at Puri also houses sculptures of dancing figures, including Nataraja, Ganesha, and Krishna. Another example of dancing figures is the Sun Temple at Konark (13th century CE). The construction of such grand temples also provided a formal setting for dance, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions and texts, such as the Madla Panji (Chronicle of the Jagannath Temple). The chronicles state that Sebayats, or those who served the deity, were employed by the temples; they included vocalists, musicians and dancers, giving rise to the Mahari system.

The Maharis (derived from maha-great, nari-women; also meaning “chosen”) were female temple dancers who performed ritual dances as a form of seva (service) to the deity, especially Lord Jagannath, at the Jagannath Temple in Puri. They were ritually married to the deity and were initiated into the service regardless of caste or class, either as a dedication by their families or as an adoption by one of the older Maharis. Their lifelong relationship was formalised with the temple in a ceremony known as the sari-bandhan. The Maharis trained rigorously and performed devotional music, nritta (pure dance), and abhinaya (expression), based on mantras and shlokas, under the instruction of the Rajguru (teacher from the royal court). He prepared them to perform one of four Mahari services- Bhitara Gauni (singing in the inner quarters of the deity), Bahara Gauni (singing outside the inner sanctum), Nachuni (dancing outside the sanctum sanctorum) and Pathuari (dancing only at religious festivals or ceremonies). Their performances then included items based on the Gita Govinda by Jayadeva (12th century CE), which has become central to the Odissi repertoire. Though they were considered the wives of Lord Jagannath, some Maharis performed at the royal court, as the King was regarded as a living image of the deity. While these dancers were considered eternally auspicious, as they were married to the Lord and therefore could not be widowed, over the years, their growing status as courtesans and their concubinage with the nobility restricted their access, even within the temple complex.

In the later medieval period (16th century onwards), political and social changes affected the patronage of temples and temple sebayats. It is believed that, after Vaishnavism grew in the area, the Mahari tradition declined and was replaced by the sakhi-bhava tradition of offering oneself to the Lord as a female attendant. This gave rise to the Gotipua dancers. Translating to ‘one boy,’ these dancers were usually pre-pubescent boys whom their families dedicated to temples, where Maharis and other gurus in dance and acrobatics trained them. The Gotipuas, unlike the Maharis, could be dedicated to the temple for a specific period, often as a gesture of gratitude to the deity for protection or the fulfilment of wishes. These young boys dressed up as girls and performed before the deity. Their repertoire included bandha nritya, which included tableau-like formations and acrobatics in addition to dance. Gotipua performances were often held outside the temple and were open to the public. Wealthy landlords also patronised the troupes. Gotipuas not only retained key stylistic elements of Mahari performances but also created new choreographies. Many of the modern Odissi gurus, such as Pankaj Charan Das and Kelucharan Mohapatra, began their training as Gotipuas.

The historical trajectory of dance in Odisha faced significant challenges, particularly during the 12th century, when invading armies devastated Odisha’s temples and monasteries, forcing dancers to rely on monarchical patronage to survive. Their place in temples was fortified by rulers of the 14th century; however, with the advent of colonial rule in the 19th century, they faced a steady decline. Temples experienced a reduction in state patronage under British policies, and their traditions lost support. Mahari performances and Gotipua troupes were discouraged, and the dancing communities were marginalised. While Christian missionaries instigated an attack on the dances, labelling them immoral and decadent, British authorities commenced a ridicule of these practices, even putting on record after attending such performances that they were indecent ceremonies and rituals. By the late 1890s, the missionaries rallied to ban such performances, prompting the British Government to ban temple dances in 1910. The ostracism of these artistes subjected them to abject poverty and led to a systematic erasure of their socio-cultural standing.

The post-colonial era witnessed a renewed interest in indigenous art forms, with movements advocating for the recognition and preservation of traditional practices, including dance. In the 1930s, cultural revivalists like Kavichandra Kalicharan Pattanayak, who is credited with the naming of the modern dance form of Odissi, brought dance inspired by the Maharis and Gotipuas to the fore, composing pieces on the Ras-Lila which were performed in theatres such as the Annapurna Theatre in Cuttack, where it gained popularity among the masses. Eminent gurus like Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mayadhar Raut, and Deba Prasad Das began training there. They were soon joined by their Guru, Pankaj Charan Das, whose efforts were pivotal in revitalising the dance form and ensuring its transmission to future generations.

By the 1950s, a collective of dancers, scholars, and musicians formed the Jayantika movement in Odisha. The four gurus, as mentioned above, were instrumental in systematising Odissi as a classical form by codifying its grammar, reconstructing its repertoire, and advocating for its recognition. Ensuring Odissi’s alignment with the principles of the Natyashastra and drawing from temple sculptures, ancient texts, and the living traditions of Maharis and Gotipuas, the Jayantika collective established a structured format for instruction and performance for the dance. The repertoire, costume, and jewellery were standardised, with the addition of the Pushpachuda hairstyle, the tahia, and the bengapatia (waist belt). While Odissi struggled to gain popularity, as many considered it a distant form of Bharatanatyam, the efforts of Odissi gurus and performers to establish it as an independent dance form with its own distinct history led to its official recognition as a classical dance of India in the 1960s.

The proponents of Odissi brought it to the global stage, attracting new generations of dancers and audiences from India and abroad. The Sangeet Natak Akademi and other cultural bodies provided platforms and grants to promote the art. With globalisation, Odissi was increasingly performed and taught abroad, leading to its growing popularity among diaspora communities and foreign enthusiasts. Interestingly, the Mahari tradition has found a place in reconstructed, scholarly, and performance-based revival. However, Gotipua continues to exist in practice in villages but faces the threat of fading away without efforts to preserve these forms alongside the growing popularity of Odissi. While concerns about maintaining the authenticity and spiritual core of the form amid modernisation and commercialisation have arisen, choreographic innovations and thematic experiments have become more common, with artists exploring contemporary issues alongside traditional narratives.

Odissi has transformed from a sacred temple ritual into a celebrated global art form, renowned for its intricate footwork, lyrical grace, and expressive storytelling rooted in Hindu mythology. Its performances often showcase a range of emotions and narratives through a unique movement vocabulary. While the tradition of dance was inseparable from the religious and spiritual life of Odisha, the contemporary appreciation of Odissi highlights its adaptability and relevance in modern contexts while maintaining its traditional essence.